Annulment v. divorce in India

Divorce

This article has been written by Harshita Varshney and updated by Ishani Samajpati . The article aims at elaborating on the legal and procedural differences between the annulment of marriage and divorce in India. It also highlights the provisions of both divorce and annulment of marriage under different personal laws in India, with decisions by various courts, including the Apex Court. Furthermore, it also discusses the annulment of marriage at the option of one party. Finally, it examines the fate of the children born in both annulment of marriage and divorce.

It has been published by Rachit Garg.

Table of Contents

Introduction

The perception of marriage differs among people due to the diversity of their religion. Vedas have observed Hindu Marriage as an indissoluble union till eternity. It is defined as a union of bones with bones, flesh with flesh and skin with skin, the husband and wife become as if they were one person. Under Muslim Law, marriage is treated as a civil contract where an offer is proposed and accepted by the parties in the presence of each other.

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Due to the diversity of religion in India Marriage is treated as part of the personal law of the parties and the people are allowed to perform marriage as per their personal laws.

However, with the advancement of time and social awareness, various legislations have been passed by the government to make the present-day separation procedure in India more progressive with respect to gender affairs and related sensitive issues. Prima facie the two terms namely annulment and divorce may look similar as both of them deal with termination of marriage but they hold two different meanings.

Marriage has been considered one of the most important and probably the oldest social institutions in civilised human society since ancient times. It is commonly known as the union between a man and a woman sanctioned by society and protected by the law. It is also considered a foundation for creating a family.

The Hindu shastras view marriage not only as a holy sacrament but also as sacrosanct. Several rituals establish an irrevocable bond between a husband and wife. On the other hand, marriage is considered a contract in Islam and Christianity. Over time, society has accepted various types of marriage, including same-sex marriage, and there are attempts around the world to legalise it.

In contrast, both annulment and divorce lead to the end of the institution of marriage. The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defines ‘divorce’ as “the formal legal dissolution of a legally constituted marriage” and ‘annulment’ as “the act of stating officially that something, usually a marriage, is not legally recognised.” Hence, it can be inferred that while both of them end the marriage, there are some procedural and legal differences between them. Apart from that, Indian marriage laws also contain provisions for annulment of marriage at the option of one party.

Grounds for annulment of marriage under different personal laws

Even though there are different personal laws governing the annulment of marriage, the grounds for getting an annulment under different personal laws are mostly similar, except under the Muslim personal laws. For example, a marriage while having one or more living spouses (polygamy) is not an offence under Muslim law, while even a second marriage while having a living spouse is void ab initio for all other faiths. Similar is the case with bigamy.

The following grounds under different personal laws are applicable for marriages that are void ab intio. Even if the parties do not obtain a decree of annulment from the court, it is still void. It implies that obtaining a decree from the court is discretionary for the parties. The general grounds for annulment of marriage under different personal laws are as follows:

Living spouse

Except for a Muslim marriage, if either party has a living spouse at the time of marriage, such marriage is void. The earlier marital tie still continues even though there is no relationship between husband and wife.

The provisions for annulment of marriage on this ground are present in all marriage enactments, which are as follows:

Bigamy

Bigamy is the offence of marrying another person while being lawfully married to another. It is an offence under Section 494 of the Indian Penal Code . The exceptions are when the previous marriage has been declared void by a court or the spouse has been unheard for a continuous period of seven years and the whereabouts of the spouse are not known by anyone who would have known had he or she been alive in the meantime under Section 108 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 .

However, it must be noted in this connection that the present government has recently brought a massive overhaul to the criminal justice system of India. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 which seeks to replace the IPC, deals with the offence of bigamy under Section 81. Under this new Bill, concealment of a previous marriage while contracting the new marriage is also punishable with ten years of imprisonment and a fine.

Prohibited degrees of relationship or sapinda

If the parties to the marriage are within a degree of a prohibited relationship or are sapindas to each other, the marriage is void. However, if a custom permits this type of marriage, it is not void.

The provisions for this ground are as follows:

Defective wedding formalities

Some personal laws include this ground. For example, Section 4 of the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872, lays down that marriages solemnised otherwise than in accordance with Section 5 shall be void. However, Section 77 of the Act lists down the irregularities for which marriages solemnised under the provisions of Sections 4 and 5 shall not be void. These include statements regarding consent or dwelling, notice of marriage, the certificate or its translation, the time and place of marriage, and the registration of marriage.

Similarly, Section 7 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 states that a marriage may be solemnised under Hindu rites and ceremonies. If rites and ceremonies include saptapadi, i.e., taking seven steps by bridegroom and bride together, the marriage will be binding only after completing the seventh step. Before that, it is defective, and the marriage can be revoked.

Other grounds

The party alleging the mental disorder of the spouse should prove it on his or her own. The party must establish that the mental illness suffered by the spouse is to such an extent that it is impossible to lead a normal married life. The Supreme Court of India clearly elaborated this in R. Lakshmi Narayan v. Santhi (2001) .

Grounds for annulment in Muslim personal laws

Some of the essentials of annulment of Muslim marriage are as follows:

Capacity to marry

Every male who has attained the age of puberty and is of sound mind is competent to contract a marriage. The general presumption is that after attaining 15 years of age makes one competent for marriage. A male who is not of sound mind or has not attained the age of puberty can contract marriage with the supervision of his guardian. Consent of contract to marriage of girls differs in different schools of Muslim law. The general law is that a girl who has attained the age of majority (18 years) has the capacity to contract her marriage without a wali (guardian) .

However, under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 , the Madras High Court in the case of M Mohamed Abbas v. Chief Secretary, Government of Tamil Nadu (2015) held that preventing marriages of Muslim girls under the age of 18 years is not depriving them of their enjoyment of religious rights but to empower and grant equal status to the girl child.

Intersect and inter-religion marriages

Muslim law does not prohibit anyone from performing an intersect marriage, and hence it is a valid marriage. However, the concept of void and null marriages comes into play in the case of inter-religion marriages. Mulla’s Principles of Muslim Law states that in Shia personal law, marriage between a Shia and a non-Muslim is void. On the other hand, the marriage of a Sunni male with a kitabia female is valid. The term kitabia implies believer, meaning a person who believes in the Holy book. Kitabia does not include fire worshippers or idol worshippers. Hence, marriage with a Shia male with any Christian or Jew woman is valid, but not the same with a Hindu, Sikh, Jain, or Buddhist woman.

A Sunni Muslim female is not allowed to marry any non-Muslim under any conditions, and the marriage under Muslim law is void ab initio . Though there are some differences of opinion between scholars in this regard.

On the other hand, marriage between a Hanafi male and a fire-worshipper or idol-worshipper female is considered irregular.

Void inter-religious marriages are validated through a civil marriage if it is solemnised under the Special Marriage Act, 1954, and the succession of the children born in the wedding is governed by the Indian Succession Act, 1925.

Marriage within degrees of prohibited relationship

In Muslim law, the prohibited relationship refers to those degrees of relations under which two persons are not allowed to marry, and even if they do, the marriage is either considered batil or fasid. Quranic verses have laid down the degrees of prohibited relationships clearly. The degrees of prohibited relationships in Muslim law are:

Marriage within the first three categories is considered batil and void ab initio while the last criteria render a marriage fasid. Two expressions are used to define prohibited relationships: how highsoever and how lowsoever. It means such ascendants and descendants, to any degree, fall under the category of prohibited relationships.

Consanguinity

Consanguinity, according to the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, is “a kin relationship based on descent from a common (male or female) ancestor.” Muslim law prohibits relationships on the male side. Prohibited relationships on consanguinity are the same among Shias and Sunnis. A Muslim male is absolutely prohibited from marrying these relations, and marrying within such degrees makes the marriage void ab initio:

Affinity

Affinity is those relationships that are created after marriage between two persons. Except for the Shafi’i school, all other schools of Shias and Sunnis deem the existence of the relationship of affinity not only during when the marriage is valid but also after when it is invalid. Even though the marriage is not consummated, the degree of prohibition on the ground of affinity arises once the valid marriage is contracted. However, no relationships based on affinity are created in batil marriages.

Prohibited relationships on the ground of affinity are as follows:

Prohibited relationship with wife’s daughter or granddaughter how lowsoever only arises if the marriage has been consummated.

Fosterage

Thoughts of Shias and Sunnis vary on prohibited relationships on the basis of the degree of fosterage. According to Shias, the foster relationship only arises if the foster mother nourishes the child and breastfeeds.

However, Sunnis permit marriage with a certain degree of foster relationships:

Unlawful conjugation

While marriages with degrees of prohibited relationships based on consanguinity, affinity, and fosterage are absolute grounds for making a marriage null and void, while unlawful conjugation is a relative ground. It means it is a moral ground and renders a marriage void or irregular.

According to Mullah, a man cannot marry two wives who are related by consanguinity, affinity, or fosterage. Thus, a person cannot marry two full, consanguine, or uterine sisters or an aunt and niece. The rule of unlawful conjugation is only applicable when the said marriage on whose basis the relationship of unlawful conjugation is declared is subsisting. If there is divorce from the marriage, the prohibition on the basis of unlawful conjugation does not apply.

Under Sunni schools, such marriages are irregular; however, in Shia law, these marriages are absolutely void.

According to Fatwa-i-alamgiri, the source of Islamic laws in India, children born in such marriages are valid.

Other relative criteria

These criteria are not obligatory but are of recommendatory and moral nature. These are also relative because the validity of marriage under these criteria varies in various schools of Islam. These grounds are as follows:

Grounds for annulment of marriage at the option of either party

The marriages which can be annulled at the option of either party are known as voidable marriages. These marriages are entered into illegally and are allowable if not objected to, but the court can annul the marriage once a petition is filed. The decree of annulment can be obtained at the option of the injured party, and before passing the decree, the marriage is binding.

The grounds for annulment at the option of either party are as follows:

There is a limitation period for presenting the petition for annulment. The petition for annulment should be presented within one year after the marriage or when the fraud has been discovered, as the case may be, held by the Madras High Court in V. Raja v. Bhuvaneswari (1997) .

The provisions for this under different personal laws are as follows:

Such provisions in these Acts are similar to Section 12(f) of the Matrimonial Causes Act, 1973 .

Section 112 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 states that the burden of proof in this case is on the petitioner. It applies when a child is born during a valid marriage or within 280 days of the dissolution of the marriage if the wife remains unmarried. This Section is based on the maxim pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant (he is the father to whom marriage indicates). Hence, to get an annulment under this ground, the petitioner has to prove a “non-access” element. The Supreme Court, in the case of Dukhtar Jahan v. Mohammed Farooq (1987) stated that courts have always desisted from lightly or hastily rendering a verdict and that too, on the basis of slender materials, which will have the effect of branding a child as a bastard and its mother an unchaste woman.”

A suit for annulment of marriage may be converted to a suit for dissolution of marriage, depending on the facts and circumstances of the case, as in the case of Pawan Kumar v. Smt. Mukesh Kumari (2001) .

Fasid marriage

Fasid marriage, in Muslim law, is also known as irregular marriage. It means there are some relative impediments to marriage that can be removed to render the marriage valid. It is not similar to voidable marriage in other Indian laws. A voidable marriage is valid until one party wants annulment and it has the same legal effects of void marriage after annulment. However, fasid marriage is a marriage that is neither valid nor void. For example, if a person marries his wife’s sister, the marriage is considered void on the basis of unlawful conjugation. If he pronounces talaq on the first wife, the impediment is removed and the marriage becomes valid.

Similarly, if a Sunni male marries an idol or fire worshipper, the marriage is not valid under Muslim law until the wife converts to Islam.

Fasid marriage does not have any legal effect before consummation, and the husband can terminate immediately by saying talaq. If consummation takes place, the wife is entitled to dower and should perform idaat after the divorce or death of the husband. The children born in fasid marriages are legitimate and have rights to inherit properties from both sides.

A marriage in Muslim law is considered fasid on the following grounds:

Fasid marriages are not recognised in the Ithna Ashari school of Shia. Hence, a marriage with any of the last four conditions is rendered void.

Annulment of marriage

An annulment means an official announcement which ends the existence of the marriage. It is a process in which the marriage is declared as null and void due to some reasonable causes and these causes include that the legal requirements were not met at the time of marriage. When certain legal requirements are not met at the time of the marriage then the marriage is not considered as a valid marriage. The annulment of such marriage is passed by the authorities which never existed in the eye of law because of the absence of certain legal requirements which are important to make a marriage valid. When a petition for annulment of marriage is made by one party the court has to decide whether a valid marriage took place between the parties or not. When the decree of annulment is passed by the Court then the further duties or obligations towards each other also ends with the non-existence of the marriage.

Provisions of annulment under different personal laws

The provisions regarding the annulment of marriage have been dealt with in various personal laws. Those laws are discussed below:

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

The provision related to the annulment of marriage has been dealt with under the head “Nullity of Marriage and Divorce”. Among Hindus, marriage is regarded as the sacred bond between the two individuals. The old Hindu laws of marriage have been wholly transformed by the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 to remove all the social defects introduced by the old laws. The new legislation has not only introduced some major changes but also tried to customise it so as to remove the social disparity. As per Hindu law, marriage can be of three types: Valid Marriage, Void Marriage and Voidable marriage.

Section 5 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (hereinafter HMA) provides for the conditions for a valid Hindu marriage. The conditions provided by the law for the valid Hindu marriage are: